1.
How Speakers Represent the World:
Exploring Experiential Meanings
by: Butt, David et all (2001)
Language
which used by human performs three function namely experiential, interpersonal
and textual function. In this chapter, Butt (2001) explains about the
experiential function of language which is means that language as
representation of human experience.
In
human experience, there are three general categories those are things, events
and circumstances. It forms in CLAUSE and the element of the clause which being
the expression of the event as PROCESS. More specific it can say as in perform
the experiential function, language or clause consist of some elements namely PROCESS,
PARTICIPANTS, CIRCUMSTANCES and sometimes includes the CONJUNCTION GROUPS. The PROCESS
realized by a verbal group, PARTICIPANTS realized by nominal groups or
preposition phrase and the CIRCUMSTANCES of human experience realized by
adverbial groups, prepositional phrase and occasionally nominal groups. The CONJUNCTION
GROUPS is to help join the various system (clause) together in a variety of
logical relationship.
The
three functional constituent have their labeling system or take place in their
own roles. Participant constituent described in terms of various participant
roles such as ACTOR, AGENT, GOAL, CARRIER, SAYER. The process has three basic
process types: MATERIAL, RELATIONAL and PROJECTING.
Most English Clauses have a
constituent structure that can be described functionally in terms of PROCESS,
PARTICIPANTS, CIRCUMSTANCES with the process being ingredient. Here some
examples:
Participant Process
The
President arrived
Participant Process Participant
She
remembered our name
Participant Process Circumstances
The
President arrived by plane
As
mention before that A Process is realized in grammar by means of a verbal
group, which is either one word, belonging to the class verb or a group of
words. It realize processes in experiential meanings. We can recognize some
verbs in to three groups: doing verbs, projecting verbs and being verbs.
The doing
verbs can be subdivided into: MATERIAL processes and BEHAVIOURAL processes.
MATERIAL processes is processes that encoded experiences in the external or
describe actions and happenings in the outside, material world. For example works,
bit, etc. BEHAVIOURAL processes are processes that encode psychological behavior
such as watched, sang etc.
The
projecting verbs can be subdivided into: MENTAL processes and VERBAL Processes.
MENTAL processes are processes which is encoded experiences in the inner world
of consciousness. These are to do with thinking, wanting, perceiving and
emoting. For example, enjoyed, remembered etc. VERBAL Process are processes
that encoded the experience of bringing the inner world outside by speaking
such as told and said.
The last
is the being verbs, can be sub divided into: EXISTENTIAL processes and
RELATIONAL Processes. EXISTENTIAL processes like are, was, were, the
functions of which is to set up the existence of sole Participants. It almost
always preceded by there. RELATIONAL Processes like are, seemed, was,
were, felt, the function of which is o encode relationship of being and
having between two participants. These processes can be further subdivided into
those whose function is to ascribe an attribute which are known as RELATIONAL
ATTRIBUTIVE processes and those whose function is to identify are known as
RELATIONAL IDENTIFYING processes.
Process types and Participant Roles
Material Processes
The participant Role in material
processes are: ACTOR (or Doer the process), a GOAL (or thing affected by the
process), a RANGE (or Thing unaffected by the process), a BENEFICIARY of the
process. Here some example:
Santi arrived
Actor process:
material
I ate in the morning
Actor process:
material Circumtances
The cat caught the mouse
Actor process:
material Goal
I posted a letter to a friend
Actor process:
material Goal Beneficiary: Recipient
She did some research
Actor process:
material Range
Behavioural Processes
Behavioural Processes construe
pshyiological psychological behaviour. The main participant role is BEHAVER.
Sometimes there is a Range-like Participant known as BEHAVIOUR which is
extended the process. The examples are:
She laughed
Behaver process: behavioural
She watched the sunset
Behaver process: behavioural Range
Mental Processes
Mental process encode the inner world
cognition, perception, inclination or liking/disliking. Potential participant
Role in this doing the processes are SENSER which must be realized by a human
or at least conscious participant and the PHENOMENON, realized by a nominal
group or embedded clause. Some example are shown below:
John knows the
answer
Senser process: mental:cognition Phenomenon
John knows what he
wants
Senser process: mental:cognition Phenomenon
‘Why am I tired She the answer
Projected clause Senser process:
mental
Verbal Processes
Verbal processes construe saying. The
participant roles are: SAYER (Doer the
process), RECEIVER (addressee of the speech), TARGET (the participant which is
the object of the talk), and VERBIAGE (which corresponds to Phenomenon in a
mental process and sums up what is said in one nominal group or embedded
clause). The examples are:
She said her piece
Sayer process:
verbal Verbiage
Diana told the secret to her best friend
Sayer process:
verbal Verbiage Receiver
Marcus praised Julius
Caesar
Sayer process:
verbal Target
Existential Processes
There is only one participant in this
processes, EXISTENT. The existential processes are typically preceded by there
and occur in the beginning of the text.
There are several
difficulties
process:
existential Existent
Relational Processes
There are
two main types of relational process: RELATIONAL ATTRIBUTIVE, which relate a
participant to its general characteristics or description; and RELATIONAL
IDENTIFYING, which relate a participant to its identify, role or meaning. In relational attributive clauses, the
participant known as CARRIER and the characteristic is known as ATRRIBUTE. The example are:
Their office is Sumptuous
Carrier process: relational Attribute
In contrast to attributive processes,
the relational Identifying process set up an identify, role and meaning. It has
two functions which are called ‘the engine room and ‘power-house of
semiotics’. The first function is the
one which provide a new identity. The nominal group whether it comes first or last
in the clause is labeled IDENTIFIED and the new identity is the IDENTIFIER. The
examples are:
Your office is the
room on the left
Identified Process: relational identifying Identifier
The room on the right is your office
Identifier Process: relational identifying Identified
The second function, we can say that
we take some token and give it a new value or some value and give its token. So
that, the participants role in this function are TOKEN, the form and VALUE, the
function.
2.
Clause as Representation
by: Halliday, M.A.K (1990)
In
this chapter, Halliday (1990) presented one of the functions of the clause as
ideational function. Its role is as a means of representing patterns of
experiences. In other words, clause can function as the representation of human
experience or what happen around them. It also can be said clause as
representational of processes. The process here means that doing, happening,
feeling or being.
A
process consists of three components: the process itself, participant in the
processes, and the circumstances associated with the processes. It can be
illustrate in the example the birds are flying in the sky. Are flying as the process, a
participant birds and the circumstantial element in the sky. In
addition, we can say that what is going on consists of there is doing, a doer,
and the location where the doing take place. There is doing or process
typically realized verbal group, a doer
or participant realized by nominal group and where the doing take place or
circumstance realized by adverbial group or prepositional phrase.
Material
processes: processes of doing
Material processes are process of
‘doing’. They express some entities ‘does something which may be done ‘to’ some
other entity. In this processes there are some concept which is introduced.
Those are ACTOR and GOAL. The Actor is the one that does the deed. Every
process has an actor. Some processes, but not all, have a second participant
which is called GOAL. Here the example:
1. The lion sprang
Actor Process
2. The lion caught the tourist
Actor Process Goal
In the
examples above, we can see that in (1) the doing was confined the lion, whereas
in (2) it was directed act, extended, to tourist. Here the term GOAL implies ‘directed at’ .
another term that has been used for this function is PATIENT, meaning one that
‘suffers’ or ‘undergoes’ the process.
Moreover,
the other entity may be one that is brought into being by prcess, not
pre-existing. Thus, we can distinguish between a ‘doing to’ or DISPOSITIVE type
and a ‘bringing about’, or CREATIVE Type. The participant that results from creative
process is still referred to as GOAL.
Mental
processes: processes of sensing
The clause of feeling, thinking and
perceiving are under the general heading of MENTAL PROCESS. The category of ‘mental process clauses’ have
five main criteria.
1. There is
always one participant who as a human.
2. That which
is felt, thought or perceived, the position is in a sense reserved
3. The
unmarked present tense is the Simple Present Tense
4.
Represented language as two-way processes
5. Mental
process are the process of feeling, thinking and seeing.
The two participant in mental process
are SENSER and PHENOMENON. The Senser is the conscious being that is feeling,
thinking or seeing. Whereas, the Phenomenon s that which is ‘sensed’.
The three category of mental process –
feeling, thinking and seeing, are labeled in more general term (1) PERCEPTION
(seeing, hearing, etc), (2) AFFECTION (liking, fearing etc) and (3) COGNITION
(thinking, knowing, understanding, etc). For example:
I don’t
like it
Senser Process: Affect Phenomenon
She knows
Senser Process: Cognition
Relational
processes: processes of being
The relational process are the of
being. For example John is the teacher. The central meaning of clauses
of this type is that something is. Here are two modes of relational process:
attributive and identifying. In the attributive mode, an attribute is ascribed
to some entity.the two elements ot this are ATTRIBUTE and CARRIER. The example
is:
Sarah is wise
Carrier Process Attribute
In identifying mode, one entity is used to identify
another. The structural function are IDENTIFIED and IDENTIFIER. For example:
Tom is the leader
Identified Process identifier
When the variable is also taken into account it defines
another pair grammatical function which is refer to TOKEN and VALUE. One element will be the Value (meaning,
referent, function, status, role) and the other will be the Token (sign, name,
form, holder, occupant)
Other process types; summary of Types
process
1. Behavioural
Processes. These are processes of physiological and psychological behavior,
like breathing, dreaming, smiling, and coughing. The Behaver is typically a
conscious being, like the Senser but he Process functions more like one of
‘doing’. Thus, grammatically they are intermediate between material and mental
process.
2. Verbal Process. These
are process of saying. Unlike mental process, verbal process do not require a
conscious participant. The Sayer can be anything that puts out a signal. There
are two other participants function regularly in verbal process. One is
Receiver, the one whom verbalization is addressed. The other is a name for
verbalization itself, VERBIAGE.
3. Existential
Process. These represent that something exists or happens. These clauses
typically have the verb be, or some other verb expressing existence,
followed by a nominal group functioning as Existent.
Other participant function
1. Beneficiary. The
Beneficiary is the one to whom or for whom the process is said to take place.
It appears in material and verbal process and occasionally in relational. In
material process, the Beneficiary is either Recipient or Client. The Recipient
is one that goods are given to whereas the Client is one that services are done
for. In verbal process, the Beneficiary is he one wh is being addressed e.g Lina
in Mutia said to Lina. It is known as Receiver. The Receiver is
usually present in verbal process.
2. Range. The Range
is the element that specifies the range or scope of the process. A range may
occur in material, behavioural, mental and verbal processes.
Circumstantial elements
The principal types of Circumntantial
element in English are as fllows: Extent and Location in Time and Space,
including abstract space; Manner (means, quality, comparison); Cause (reason,
purpose, behalf); Accompniment; Matter; Role
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